Discussion Question Number Three: Part Nine

(Chapter Fifteen)

Cause and Effect in Populations


Chapter fifteen teaches the concept of cause and effect in populations. It illustrates three major points and experiments available to further distribute any response or result about a certain population and its differences. The textbook refers to these three experiments as: a controlled experiment (cause-to-effect), an uncontrolled experiment (cause-to-effect), and another uncontrolled experiment (effect-to-cause).

Epstein includes a main example dealing with smokers and non-smokers, as well as the probability of getting lung cancer, and how much influences and differences are in these two aspects or lifestyles that will ultimately see if it contributes or lessens the probability of receiving lung cancer. The example is illustrated through all three points of experiment. The controlled experiment, seen as most inhumane, would have a large sample size gathered by those who are giving the experiment. One group would stay away from cigarettes, the other would smoke twenty-five of them a day. They would then check back on the sample size twenty years later and see its effects on the participants, and so on, with the other experiments with small variants to the experiment (first uncontrolled gathers decided smokers and non smokers, and checks back at the same time; second uncontrolled takes the result and traces back to its cause of a smoker receiving lung cancer).

The idea of sweeping generalizations is made with the idea that it should become more trustworthy of certified scientists who make and devise experiments to conclude whether or not a cause of something truly is that particular thing. I found all of this really interesting.

Discussion Question Number Two: Part Nine

Mission Critical Website


The Mission Critical website honestly did not make me want to go any further about learning about anything with the numerous links it provided within the webpage. I felt the usefulness was definitely there, as it provided loads of information and directories that lead you into knowledge. However, the overwhelming amount of information can really put back a person into finding a more simpler, more organized webpage that still had the ability to retain most of the information, but in a less intense manner.

There is no doubt that I learned quite a bit. All the examples provided in almost every section, just as the Causation website provided, helped tremendously in allowing for the understanding of many concepts sink in. I'd always forget what "Straw Man", and I could certainly come back later to this website to see and jog my memory from this concept that seems to have become somewhat blurry. I realized that Mission Critical provided ideas from learning with an introduction to statements, claims, (basics in learning about arguments) to detailed concepts and diagrams to go with the information presented, as well as, information and exercises to Causal arguments. I really thought it was useful that they provided the exercises that allows you to pick answers, which in then explained if it is a good answer to pick and why or why not, which was excellent to see. It is a very good webpage in allowing the reader to fully envelop themselves in the world of argument. And by simply putting aside the overwhelming feeling from all the links, you can learn indefinitely.

Discussion Question Number One: Part Nine

Cause and Effect Website: Reading and Exercises


The usefulness in the Cause and Effect website holds most of its weight in providing precise and detailed examples to better help the reader in understanding the concept of causation, a way of using or a type of inductive reasoning. It states that the most important use for inductive reasoning comes from the act of arguing causation.

The website provides the example of continuous accidents from one event, or difference from a normal circumstance, and how a cause-and-effect conclusion comes from about it. There is a ripple as the bicycle, who does not immediately see the truck parked in a bike lane, a first car who does not immediately see the bicycle swerve off in avoidance of colliding with the truck, and the second car who does not immediately see the first car brake in avoidance of colliding with the bicycle. This example is very good, as it provides an easy image to recreate in a reader's mind, become much easier to follow along, with the help, as well, of the straightforward and easy word usage they provide. The author describes that this instance, and the trial that could possibly come from this trifecta of accidents, doesn't become a matter of causation until it becomes known that the observation and difference of the truck being there caused the accidents to occur, and the fact that there is a difference from what normally is present in traffic and what wasn't that particular day, which helps distinguish what and what couldn't pass by as causation. This entire example really broke down what was needed to be learned about the concept, and really opened with something that can be related by plenty of people with such a common event that happens in everyday life.

The website also allowed for the two important factors to remember when dealing with causation (reverse causation and the importance of proving it, making sure the effect is correct in comparing it with causation) and goes in some depth about what they have to do with causation and what could be the result if it differed in any manner, which again, help the reader receive a better understanding of the concept. It, overall, was a good website to look over, and helped that much better to clarify any question about the concept by reading it from the textbook alone. The exercises at the end were additional helpers, and were a quirky and convenient addition to the webpage to add usefulness as a whole. They were easy to read and answer, and provided useful and aware-inducing information to add to our current knowledge of the particular subject.

Discussion Question Number One: Part Eight

Various Real World Examples for Reasoning by Analogy


1) Reasoning by Analogy: I've used my cellphone here plenty of times in the Valley with no problems, so therefore, I can use it in the Bay Area, and expect and receive the exact same effect of no problems, too.

2) Sign Reasoning: If there is a sick person, there is a feeling of being unwell, in mood, for that person as well.

3) Casual Reasoning: My brother and I ate some sausages at a local restaurant for breakfast while my father did not because he does not like them, therefore I ate his so they would not go to waste. My brother and I get sick the next day and my father does not. The food at the restaurant got us sick.

4) Reasoning by Criteria: I wish to be respectful and kind to others, therefore, I will hold open that door for that gentleman.

5) Reasoning by Example: You should get one of those re-usable water bottles, it's better for the environment, and I have a friend who says it's bad to keep re-filling those plastic, disposable bottles with liquids, and worse in general to buy those to get a drink of water.

6) Inductive: Only lend amounts of money you wouldn't be bothered never getting back; you will be, mostly likely, not as frustrated with a person who has yet to pay you back.

7) Deductive: I always place my water bottle next to my bed so I can grab it every morning to get more. The water machine is in the DC, as it has been ever since I've been here at SJSU. My water bottle will be there tomorrow, and so will the machine so I can fill it with water.

Discussion Question Number Two: Part Eight

Reasoning by Analogy

The concept that I considered to be most difficult to understand would have to be Reasoning by Analogy simply because the wording, when explaining the basis of the concept, seemed to throw me off and confuse most of the time. The first example given was easy to grasp, however, as the examples kept coming, I wasn't sure of the range, so to speak, this concept was allowed to be used for (in given situation, and how far that can be projected for). However, by researching Epstein's concept a bit, I was able to more easily determine what Reasoning by Analogy was trying to convey in regards to analyzing arguments. This concept essentially concerns the idea of because Situation A occurs in a certain manner, it will have the same effect in a different situation, or Situation B, regardless of variations.

According to Epstein, a comparison automatically becomes considered this concept, reasoning by analogy, whenever it becomes attached or a part of an argument. Continuing the explanation, the person analyzing the situation would furthermore gather a conclusion from one side of the given comparison in the situation, which in then is applied the same manner in the other side of the comparison (it should be the same). Analogies, according to the text, are seen as serious suggestions. And simply because they are labeled as suggestions, however, does not mean we should take them lightly.

Discussion Question Number Three: Part Eight

Analogies in the Law


Known to be vague, and are, most of the time, not made explicit enough to be able to be considered as good arguments. These are the analogies in the law. They, in the case of the law, are presented in an incredibly detailed way and are very analyzed arguments with similarities that are said, and commonly known, to be important. There is a stated, general principle in this concept of Epstein. The situations made, of the analogies and of other instances, are considered to rarely occur in real life (not being able to be imagined or covered by the law). These principles, by the judgment and decision by the judges, have to be respected. It is by the idea of commonalities and precedents of the law that these judges must decide whether to abide by the previous followed laws, or rather, consider the more present ones with bigger weight of influence. The trickery comes from of the judges following past laws that may have changed over time. Examples are given in the text to further help illustrate this concept.

Discussion Question Number Three: Part Seven

Appeal to Spite


Appeal to Spite may inadvertently appear under certain circumstances, as for example, Epstein creates an instance where two friends are helping a third friend out with something. One of the friend's helping out discusses and questions the other friend's willingness to help, reminding him of the time where the third friend who is being helped with now refused to help fix his fence the week prior. The appeal is describes as the "hope of revenge" (193). It can be viewed or considered slightly immoral, in a sense, because of its initial placement of bringing up the event in the first place out of thin air. The argument in itself is most of the time a questionable claim and absurd in a logical sense.

Another example was the occurrence of a school election. A student liked the candidate's presentation most, and therefore decided to vote for that person. A friends hears this devision, and reminds the person of how the candidate did not support him by voting for him in another occurrence, and because of that, shouldn't vote for the initially chosen candidate. The person is convinced by something that shouldn't be taken onto account. The time and remembrance of that betrayal made the person forward that enraged feeling be affect his decision (with some sort of revenge) and that becomes Appeal to Spite.

Discussion Question Number Two: Part Seven

Appeal to Vanity

An advertising that uses "apple polishing":

Old Spice uses advertisements like these that are very fetching and straightforward about their clientele. They use language that's very informal and funny, which sends a comforting, trusting tone for those watching or looking at their products. The absence of forcing the idea with over-dramatic ideals and expectations isn't portrayed in their product. Although there are implausibilities and logical fallacies presented in advertisements of their products, it is the relaxing intention that lures in viewers. It is presented in a different matter that is meant mostly as a parody, which holds well in capturing the audience's attention. The vanity presented is the overwhelming confidence in ads, like these, where the producer is blatantly telling the consumer that their product is the only way to go if you want to this attractive and all powerful status of a human being to ever come possible in happening.

It does well and slightly bad of being a good advertisement. It is good that it is simple and straight to the point, however bad that it doesn't even show or mention what their product is even about. However, that can be to their advantage, as they don't seem to need to. The tone of the advertisement, although seemingly arrogant, is a type of voice that can also be seen as an admirable trait to many. And because the result of the product is exactly that, it leads to the idea of Appeal to Vanity, in that its essential priority is to make the person feel better about themselves; to become a all-around better person.

Discussion Question Number One: Part Seven

Appeal To Emotion

Definition: "A premise that says, roughly, you should believe or do something because you feel a certain way." (191)

There are four kinds of Appeals to Emotion mentioned in the text. The text uses the example of television commercials that show may, for instance, sad images pertaining to the conclusion that they want, which is to donate money to their cause. The ultimate idea left in your head leaves a feeling of "you're a bad person if you don't donate". These kids or animals, which ever the focus may be, will affect you emotionally because we sit there watching this commercial doing nothing about the problem, counting the seconds until it goes away, leaving the audience only to feel worse for trying to ignore it. This technique that is readily used in advertising everywhere holds for intense and emotional results that catches the attention to the focus, even if we, as the audience, attempt to ignore it. This case would most likely deal with Appeal to Pity or Appeal to Fear. The audience feels bad for sitting there, not helping out. Or, the fear of the possibility of a negative outcome for those that are shown in the commercial or which ever the organization may put forth in whatever form. Although it is successful in influencing the emotion, it logically may not be the best argument.